Fig. 2

Bone remodeling process in response to piezoelectric stimulation. Damage to the bone is treated with a piezoelectric scaffold placed within the site of impact. The physical interaction of the scaffold and bone defect polarizes that space. Electrical signals produced by the piezoelectric scaffold cause mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) undergo cell differentiation, advancing to a stage of pre-osteoblasts. After further maturation, the original MSCs complete differentiation into osteoblasts (D'Alessandro et al. 2021). Osteoblasts produce bone matrix and integrate with the host tissue. This process of cell differentiation that initiates the process of bone remodeling is induced by the piezoelectric signals from the scaffold (Leppik et al. 2020)