Fig. 3

Potential cellular response to piezoelectric stimulation. Mechanical forces imposed on the piezoelectric scaffold induce deformation. The deformation polarizes the charge of the scaffold. Once polarized, electrical signals are generated and released onto the cell membrane. The electrical response is directed towards the voltage-gated and stretch-activated calcium channels, respectively. The polarization of the channels forces an opening in which calcium ions are released into the cell, increasing Ca²⁺ concentration (Leppik et al. 2020). The influx of calcium activates calmodulin (calcium-binding protein). Calmodulin activation along with increase in Ca²⁺ concentration is responsible for further activation of calmodulin-dependent serine/threonine protein phosphatase known as calcineurin. NF-AT, a family of factors responsible for gene transcription is dephosphorylated by calcineurin and translocated to the nucleus (Jacob et al. 2018). When new DNA is transcribed, the cells within the gene gain the capability of differentiation